Prevalence of gastrointestinal parasite in small ruminants of District Dir Upper Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan / Prevalência de parasita gastrointestinal em pequenos ruminantes do distrito Upper Dir, da província de Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, no Paquistão

The present research was planned to assess the occurrence of intestinal parasites in small ruminants of Upper Dir of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan. For this purpose, the faecal material was collected randomly with gloved fingers directly from the rectum region of sheep and goats and the faecal materials were then put in hygienic plastic bottles with 10% formalin. The overall 315 (n=184 sheep and n= 131 goats) faecal samples were collected out of 315 samples, 281 were found positive for different parasites. Patterns-wise prevalence of GI parasites of the study area was found. Overall Single parasitism 89.20% (281/315) with 94.0% (173/184) in sheep and 82.43% (108/131) in goats. Double parasitic infection in small ruminant recorded in which Fasciola+ Haemonchus. contortus in sheep were found their prevalence was 25.54% (47/184). While in goats, the double parasitic infection in which Haemonchus contortus+Trichuris spp were found and their prevalence were 23.43% (30/131). The species found in the sample of sheep were includes, i.e., Strongyloides papillosus (41.30%), Heamonchus controtus (21.73%), Trichuris ovis (17.39%), and Fasciola hepatica (13.58%), the corresponding value for goat were Strongyloides spp 33.33% (36/108), Haemonchus spp 28.70%, (27/108), Trichuris spp 25.20% (27/184) and Fasciola spp 10.68% (14/184). The sheep of the study area are more infected as compared to goats. This study suggested that gastrointestinal parasites are major health problems of small ruminants in the study area. Therefore, a comprehensive study on species of gastrointestinal parasites circulating in the area, control options, cost-effective strategies and awareness about gastrointestinal parasites among the farmers in the study area should be instituted.

A presente pesquisa foi planejada para avaliar a ocorrência de parasitas intestinais em pequenos ruminantes do distrito Upper Dir, da província de Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, no Paquistão. Para tanto, o material fecal foi coletado aleatoriamente com dedos enluvados diretamente da região do reto de ovelhas e cabras, e os materiais fecais foram colocados em garrafas plásticas higiênicas com formol a 10%. No total, 315 (n = 184 ovelhas e n = 131 cabras) amostras fecais foram coletadas; destas, 281 foram consideradas positivas para diferentes parasitas. A prevalência de padrões de parasitas GI da área de estudo foi encontrada. Parasitismo global único 89,20% (281/315) com 94,0% (173/184) em ovinos e 82,43% (108/131) em cabras. Infecção parasitária dupla em pequenos ruminantes registrada em Fasciola + Haemonchus contortus em ovinos, sua prevalência foi de 25,54% (47/184). Já em caprinos, a dupla infecção parasitária em que Haemonchus contortus + Trichuris spp foram encontrados e sua prevalência foi de 23,43% (30/131). As espécies encontradas na amostra de ovinos foram: Strongyloides papillosus (41,30%), Heamonchus controtus (21,73%), Trichuris ovis (17,39%) e Fasciola hepatica (13,58%), o valor correspondente para cabra foi Strongyloides spp. 33,33% (36/108), Haemonchus spp. 28,70%, (27/108), Trichuris sp 25,20% (27/184) e Fasciola spp. 10,68% (14/184). As ovelhas da área de estudo estão mais infectadas do que as cabras. Este estudo sugeriu que os parasitas gastrointestinais são os principais problemas de saúde dos pequenos ruminantes na área de estudo. Portanto, um estudo abrangente sobre as espécies de parasitas gastrointestinais que circulam na área, opções de controle, estratégias de baixo custo e conscientização sobre parasitas gastrointestinais entre os agricultores na área de estudo deve ser instituído.

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and associated hematological alterations in small ruminants of D.G. Khan district of Southern Punjab, Pakistan / [Soroprevalência de Toxoplasma gondii e alterações hematológicas associadas em pequenos ruminantes no distrito de D.G. Khan no sul de Punjab, Paquistão]

The present study was carried out to evaluate the prevalence and hematological effects of Toxoplasma gondii in sheep and goat in district Dera Ghazi Khan. Blood samples (n=204) were collected comprise goats (n=101) and sheep (n=103) alongwith age, gender and breeds of animals. Samples were collected randomly from 25 flocks of 7 different union council Viz. Vehova, Tibbi Qaisrani, Lakhani, Kohar, Tuman Qaisrani, Nutkani and Kot Qaisrani of Tehsil Taunsa Sharif at least 4 animals from each flock. All ruminants divide into three groups based on age, breed and gender. The prevalence was detected through two different kits Viz. LAT and ELISA kit. The overall prevalence suspected in goats through LAT and ELISA kit was (35.64%), (32.67%) and in sheep was (25.24%), (23.30%) respectively. The Toxoplasma gondii had a significant effect on goats in age groups and non-significant all other groups of goats and sheep. Toxoplasma gondii had a significant effect on all hematological parameters like Hemoglobin, total leukocyte cells, granulocytes, lymphocytes, platelets, and red blood cells, except monocytes. In conclusion of the current study, toxoplasmosis is prevalent among ruminants, reveals the possibility of transmission to humans on the use of host animals as protein source.(AU)

O objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar a prevalência e efeitos hematológicos de Toxoplasma gondii em ovelhas e cabras no distrito Dera Ghazi Khan. Amostras de sangue (n=204) foram coletadas para incluir cabras (n=101) e ovelhas (n=103), além de idade, gênero e raça dos animais. Amostras foram coletadas aleatoriamente de 25 rebanhos de 7 conselhos sindicais: Vehova, Tibbi Qaisrani, Lakhani, Kohar, Tuman Qaisrani, Nutkani e Kot Qaisrani of Tehsil Taunsa Sharif com pelo menos 4 animais em cada rebanho. Todos os ruminantes foram divididos em três grupos baseados em idade, raça e gênero. A prevalência foi detectada usando dois kits, LAT e ELISA. A prevalência total suspeita em cabras através dos kits LAT e ELISA foi (35.64%), (32.67%) e em ovelhas foi (25.24%), (23.30%) respectivamente. O Toxoplasma gondii teve efeito significativo em cabras em grupos de idade e não significativo em todos os outros grupos de cabras e ovelhas. Toxoplasma gondii teve efeito significativo em todos os parâmetros hematológicos como hemoglobina, células totais de leucócitos, granulócitos, linfócitos, plaquetas e glóbulos vermelhos, exceto monócitos. O presente estudo conclui que toxoplasmose é prevalente entre ruminantes, e revela a possibilidade de transmissão para humanos com o uso de animais hospedeiros como fonte de proteína.(AU)

In vitro anthelmintic activity of Lippia gracilis Schauer essential oil against egg-hatching of goat gastrointestinal nematodes / Atividade anti-helmíntica in vitro do óleo essencial de Lippia gracilis Schauer contra a eclosão de nematódeos gastrintestinais de caprinos

Since drug-resistant nematodes became a common problem in sheep and goat industries, alternative methods using natural products have emerged as a viable and sustainable anthelmintic treatment option. Here, the in vitro effect of essential oil extracted from Lippia gracilis Schauer was assessed on the hatching process of nematodes recovered from naturally infected goats. Essential oil at concentrations of 0.08% (0.008 µL/mL), 0.12% (0.012 µL/mL), and 0.16% (0.016 µL/mL) was able to induce an average inhibition of 74.7, 84 and 93%, respectively. The effective concentration required to inhibit egg hatching in 50% of eggs (EC50) was 0.03452%. Therefore, essential oil of L. gracilis showed promisor in vitro anthelmintic results against egg-hatching of goat gastrointestinal nematodes.(AU)

Como os nematoides resistentes a drogas se tornaram um problema comum nas indústrias de ovinos e caprinos, métodos alternativos que utilizam produtos naturais surgiram como uma opção de tratamento anti-helmíntico viável e sustentável. Aqui, o efeito in vitro do óleo essencial extraído de Lippia gracilis Schauer foi avaliado no processo de eclosão de nematoides recuperados de caprinos naturalmente infectadas. O óleo essencial nas concentrações de 0,08% (0,008 µL/mL), 0,12% (0,012 µL/mL), e 0,16% (0,016 µL/mL)foi capaz de induzir uma inibição média de 74,7, 84 e 93%, respectivamente. A concentração efetiva necessária para inibir a eclosão de ovos em 50% dos ovos (CE50) foi de 0,03452%. Portanto, o óleo essencial de L. gracilis apresentou resultados anti-helmínticos in vitro promissores contra a eclosão de nematódeos gastrintestinais de caprinos.(AU)

Potential of botanical driven essential oils against Haemonchus contortus in small ruminants / Potencial de aceites esenciales botánicos contra Haemonchus contortus en pequeños rumiantes

The livestock sector is continuously facing problems in controlling parasitic diseases especially Haemonchosis due to emergence of anthelminthic resistance and failure in vaccination control programmes. Therefore, to increase milk and meat production and emerging demand of meat free from drug residues development of new alternative approaches are appealing for prevention and control of Haemonchosis in small ruminants. Among alternatives, plants driven essentials oils have shown promising results in control of Haemonchus contortus infection at various concentrations by different assays including egg hatch assay, larval development assay, larval exsheathment assay and adult motility assay. Essential oils are complex mixtures of various impulsive or volatile compounds which have potential to control Haemonchosis. The current study reviews the therapeutic effects of essential oils of plants against Haemonchus contortus and to be used them against Haemonchus contortus for future perspectives.

El sector ganadero enfrenta continuamente problemas para controlar las enfermedades parasitarias, especialmente la hemoncosis, debido a la aparición de resistencia antihelmíntica y al fracaso en los programas de control de vacunación. Por lo tanto, para aumentar la producción de leche y carne, y la demanda emergente de carne libre de residuos de medicamentos, el desarrollo de nuevos enfoques alternativos es atractivo para la prevención y el control de la hemoncosis en pequeños rumiantes. Entre las alternativas, los aceites esenciales producidos por las plantas han mostrado resultados prometedores en el control de la infección por Haemonchus contortus a diversas concentraciones mediante diferentes ensayos, incluido el análisis de eclosión de huevos, el desarrollo de larvas, el análisis de vaciado de larvas y el ensayo de motilidad en adultos. Los aceites esenciales son mezclas complejas de varios compuestos impulsivos o volátiles que tienen potencial para controlar la hemonchosis. Este estudio revisa los efectos terapéuticos de los aceites esenciales de las plantas contra Haemonchus contortus y evalúa sus perspectivas futuras como agentes para combatir las enfermedades causadas por este parásito.

Parasitos gastrintestinais em caprinos no município de Quixadá, Ceará / Gastrointestinal parasites in goats from Quixadá, Ceará

O objetivo desse trabalho foi avaliar a ocorrência dos principais parasitos gastrintestinais que acometem caprinos adultos e jovens do município de Quixadá-Ceará durante a época seca e chuvosa, além de identificar e quantificar as espécies de Eimeria presentes no rebanho. Foram utilizados 654 animais, sendo 334 animais no período seco, dos quais eram 149 matrizes e 185 crias e 320 animais no período chuvoso, sendo 106 matrizes e 214 crias, independente de padrão racial e sistema de criação. As coletas foram realizadas nos meses de novembro e dezembro de 2012 e maio de 2013 no município de Quixadá-Ceará e encaminhadas ao Laboratório de Parasitologia da Embrapa Caprinos e Ovinos na cidade de Sobral-Ceará. Foram coletadas fezes para contagem do número de ovos por gramas de fezes (OPG), contagem de Oocistos por gramas de fezes (OOPG), coprocultura e identificação das espécies de Eimeria com base na morfometria. As matrizes apresentaram maiores médias de ovos do tipo Strongyloidea (372,03) e Strongyloides (8,45) no período seco e no período chuvoso apresentaram maiores médias apenas para Strongyloidea (502,85). O inverso aconteceu com o OOPG, onde as crias apresentaram maiores médias no período seco (9387,41) e no chuvoso (9630,37). O gênero de nematódeo mais frequente na coprocultura foi o Trichostrongylus sp. (63,67%) no período seco e o Haemonchus sp. no chuvoso (66,67%). Em 100% dos rebanhos, foram encontrados oocistos de Eimeria, com 81% dos animais infectados. A ocorrência da eimeriose nas categorias jovens e adultas foi de 64,3% e 83,2% no período seco e de 87,4% e 92,4% no período chuvoso. As espécies identificadas foram: Eimeria alijevi, E. apsheronica, E. arloingi, E. caprina, E. caprovina, E. christenseni, E. hirci, E. jolchijevi e E. ninakohlyakimovae. Nas crias a E. alijevi foi a mais freqüente no período seco e a E. ninakohlyakimovae no chuvoso. Já nas matrizes a espécie E. alijevi apresentou a maior frequência em ambos os períodos. Nos rebanhos estudados foi evidenciado a presença de ovos de nematódeos gastrointestinais e oocistos de Eimeria spp. independente da categoria animal.(AU)

The objective of this study was to evaluate the occurrence of main gastrointestinal parasites and to quantify and identify the species of Eimeria present in young goats and adults in the city of Quixadá, Ceará, during the dry and rainy season. Six hundred fifty-four animals were used, with 334 animals during the dry season, which were 149 mothers and 185 offspring and 320 animals during the rainy season, with 106 mothers and 214 offspring, independent of breed standard and creation system. Samples were collected in the months of November and December 2012 and May 2013 in the city of Quixadá, Ceará and sent to the Parasitology Laboratory of Embrapa Goats and Sheep at Sobral, Ceará, feces were collected for counting the number of eggs per gram of feces (EPG), counting oocysts per gram of feces (OOPG), coproculture and identification of Eimeria species based on the morphometry. Matrices showed higher means egg type Strongyloidea (372.03) and Strongyloides (8.45) in the dry season and the rainy season had higher mean only to Strongyloidea (502.85). The inverse happened to OOPG, where the offspring showed higher means in the dry season (9387.41) and rainy (9630.37). The genus most frequent of nematode in coprocultures was Trichostrongylus. (63.67%) in the dry season and Haemonchus sp. the rainy (66.67%). One hundred percent of the herds, oocysts of Eimeria were found, with 81% of infected animals. The occurrence of eimeriosis in young and adult categories was 64.3% and 83.2% in the dry season and 87.4% and 92.4% during the rainy season. The species identified were: Eimeria alijevi, E. apsheronica, E. arloingi, E. caprina, E. caprovina, E. christenseni, E. hirci, E.and E. jolchijevi ninakohlyakimovae. In the offspring E. alijevi was the most frequent in the dry season and the rainy E. ninakohlyakimovae. Already in matrices the species E. Alijevi showed the highest frequency in both periods. In herds studied it evidenced the presence of gastrointestinal nematodes eggs and oocysts of Eimeria spp. independent of animal category.(AU)

Quitosana fúngica sobre larvas de nematoides gastrintestinais de caprinos / Fungal chitosan on gastrointestinal nematodes larvae of goats

A caprinocultura é representada por um efetivo bastante considerável no Nordeste brasileiro, porém, infecções causadas por nematoides e o sério problema da resistência parasitária se tornaram barreiras para a criação desses animais. Como alternativa, o controle com bioprodutos entra como uma solução sustentável e viável para auxiliar na criação da região. Nesse contexto, o presente trabalho avaliou a atuação da quitosana fúngica sobre o desenvolvimento larval de nematoides gastrintestinais em amostras de caprinos naturalmente infectados. Para tanto, foi realizada a seleção de 5 propriedades e confirmada a positividade do rebanho, além de coproculturas com solução de quitosana a 0,5; 1,0 e 1,5%, com cada tratamento realizado em 5 repetições. As larvas de terceiro estágio (L3) foram recuperadas e cem larvas por tratamento foram contabilizadas e identificadas. Os gêneros identificados foram Haemonchus, Strongyloides, Oesophagostomum e Trichostrongylus. Na análise da inibição do desenvolvimento larval, a concentração de 1,0% impediu o desenvolvimento larval do Haemonchus em 35%, porém, os resultados não tiveram diferença estatística significante. Assim, sugere-se buscar novas concentrações de quitosana fúngica como anti-helmíntico, visto que se apresenta como uma alternativa promissora no controle sustentável desses endoparasitos.(AU)

The goat is represented by a very considerable effective in the Northeastern Brazil, but infections caused by nematodes and the serious problem of parasitic resistance have become barriers to breed these animals. Alternatively, the control with bioproducts comes as a sustainable and viable solution to help breeding in this region. In this context, the present study evaluated the performance of fungal chitosan on the larval development of gastrointestinal nematodes in naturally infected goat samples. Therefore, the selection was performed at five properties. The positive herd was confirmed, and coprocultures were performed with chitosan solution 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5%, with each treatment performed in 5 replicates. The third-stage larvae (L3) were recovered and one hundred larvae/treatment were counted and identified. The identified genera were Haemonchus, Strongyloides, Oesophagostomum and Trichostrongylus. In the analysis of inhibition of larval development, the concentration of 1.0% prevented the development of larval Haemonchus by 35%, but the results were not statistically significant. Thus, it is suggested to seek new concentrations of fungal chitosan as anthelmintic, since it appears as a promising alternative to sustainable control of these endoparasites.(AU)

[Hard ticks [Acarina: Ixodidae] diversity in the natural habitat of Iranian domestic ruminants: aprovincial study in Kermanshah]

Ticks [Acari: Ixodidae] have been recognized as important ectoparasites of livestock worldwide, including in Iran. From the point of the pathogen agents' transmission, detection of the distribution of hard ticks in different parts of the country could be useful. This study reports the frequency and diversity of ticks in all age groups of both sexes in the natural habitat of domestic ruminants in Kermanshah province, Iran. A total of 600 ruminants [203 cattle, 215 sheep, and 182 goats] from 150 flocks [90 in the east and 60 in the west part of the region] of 31 villages [15 in the east and 16 in the western part of the region] were randomly selected and examined from May to September 2012. Of all examined animals, 24.63% cattle, 25.12% sheep, and 25.27% goats were infested with a total number of 1031 unfed ixodid ticks. The highest numbers of the hard ticks were collected from 3- 4 year-old female cattle and 1-2 year -old female sheep and goats in the region. There was significant difference between age groups and sex of infested animals and prevalence of ixodid ticks. The ixodid tick indices were 4.6, 7.9, and 7.1 for cattle, sheep, and goats, respectively. Geographical distribution of ixodid ticks infestations in different parts of Kermanshah province revealed that 12 cattle flocks [8%] and 12 goat flocks [8%] in the Miandarband region of eastern Kermanshah and 20 sheep flocks [13.33%] of Meidandam in western Kermanshah had the highest prevalence. Prevalence of ixodid tick infestation was statistically different between both parts of the region. The highest tick aggregation was found for inner thighs in cattle [46%] and ears in sheep [54%] and goats [43%]. There was significant difference between predilection body sites of collected hard ticks from infested animals. Of all examined ticks [1031], three genera including Hyalomma, Rhipicephalus, and Boophilus with eight, nine, and seven species in cattle, sheep, and goats were respectively identified. The predominant infesting ticks were R. sanguinus [26.2% in cattle] and R. turanicus [53.1% in sheep and 40.55% in goats] from the western part of Kermanshah province, which was significantly different. The results of the current study showed that ixodid ticks infestation was widespread and prevalent in ruminants of the region

Trypanosoma brucei Infection in Asymptomatic Greater Kudus (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) on a Game Ranch in Zambia

Trypomastogotes of Trypanosoma brucei were detected from 4 asymptomatic kudus (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) on a game ranch located approximately 45 km north east of Lusaka, Zambia. Blood smears examined from 14 wildlife species comprising of the impala (Aepyceros melampus), Kafue lechwe (kobus leche kafuensis), sable antelope (Hippotragus niger), tsessebe (Damaliscus lunatus), warthog (Phacochoerus aethiopicus), puku (Kobus vardoni), zebra (Equus burchelli), waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus), bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), reedbuck (Redunca arundinum), wilderbeest (Connochaetes taurinus), hartebeest (Alcephelus lichtensteini), African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), and kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) showed that only the kudu had T. brucei. Although game ranching has emerged to be a successful ex-situ conservation strategy aimed at saving the declining wildlife population in the National Parks, our findings suggest that it has the potential of aiding the re-distribution of animal diseases. Hence, there is a need for augmenting wildlife conservation with disease control strategies aimed at reducing the risk of disease transmission between wildlife and domestic animals.

Status of Haemaphysalis tick infestation in domestic ruminants in Iran

The geographical distribution and ecological preferences of Haemaphysalis in domestic animals in Iran were studied 4 times a year from April 2003 to March 2005. A total of 1,622 ixodid tick specimens were collected from 3 different zones. Among them, 108 (6.7%) Haemaphysalis ticks, consisting of 6 species, were identified; H. punctata (3.4%), H. parva (0.5%), H. sulcata (0.6%), H. choldokovskyi (1.7%), H. concinna (0.06%) and Haemaphysalis sp. (0.6%). H. punctata was the most abundant species, whereas H. concinna was the rarest species collected in humid and sub-humid zones on cattle, sheep and goats. H. choldokovskyi was principally collected from sheep and goats grazed in cold mountainous areas. The infested areas consisted of Caspian Sea (Guilan, Mazandaran, Golestan, and central provinces), mountainous (Azarbaiejan, Ardebil, Kohgilouyeh, and Kordestan) and semi-dessert (Khorasan, Semnan, Kerman, Sistan, and Baluchestan) zones. The Caspian Sea zone (23.6%) was the most highly infested region. The results show that various species of Haemaphysalis ticks infest domestic ruminants in Iran and each tick species show characteristic geographical distributions.

Evaluation of double diffusion test in the diagnosis of hydatidosis in livestock

The double diffusion test was used for detecting cross serological reactions between hydatid fluid antigens and sera of ruminants infested with different helminth parasites. The whole hydatid fluid antigen showed positive reactions with sera of sheep infested with Cysticercus tenuicollis, sera of cattle infested with Cysticercus bovis, sera of buffalos infested with Fasciola gigantica and Paramphistomum species and sera of cattle harbored Fasciola gigantica and Moniezia species. Sera of cattle infested with Paramphistomum species were negative. No cross reactions were detected when the purified antigen was used against the previously mentioned sera. The sensitivity of double diffusion test for diagnosis of hydatidosis using purified antigen was 96.6%

Report of Balanorchis anastrophus in Pará state with surface topography by scanning electron microscopy

Balanorchis anastrophus Fischoeder, 1901 from the reticulum from Bos taurus is reported for the first time in State of Pará, Brazil. The surface topography as revealed by scanning electron microscopy is presented

Dispersao geopolítica da ocorrência de Fasciola hepatica no Estado de Santa Catarina, Brasil / Geopolitical dispersion of the occurence of Fasciola hepatica in the State of Santa Catarina, Brazil

Geopolitical dispersion of the occurrence of Fasciola hepatica in the state of Santa Catarina, Brazil - During 12 years feces samples from cows, water buffaloes, sheeps and goats were examined by sequencial tamis filtration to show the occurence of Fasciola hepatica eggs. The material came from 129 municipalities of Santa Catarina State, and 5 g of feces per animal were examined. The occurrence of F. hepatica was confirmed in 64.82% of the municipalities. Considering the host, F. hepatica was confirmed in goats from Florianópolis, Säo José, Säo Joäo Batista and Guaramirim municipalities; in sheeps from Brusque, Pomerode, Palhoça and Säo José; in water buffaloes from 9 and in cows from 86 municipalities. For this study, 13,762 feces samples were examined and in 3,814 the presence of eggs of F. hepatica was demonstrated. The percentage of occurence for host species was 27.86 in cows, 24.72 in water buffaloes, 16.92 in sheeps and 15.66 in goats. By the results it was demonstrated that Itajaí Valley at Southest Hidrographic Basin, in Santa Catarina State is an endemic area of F. hepatica, even though Uruguai Hidrographic Basin was not referred as a geographical record for this parasite

Fasciola hepatica infection in China.

Fasciola hepatica is one of the most common parasites in China that infects ruminants, especially cattle, sheep and goats, and causes considerable morbidity and economic losses in the animal husbandry. The climate in wide areas of China is suitable for the development of F. hepatica and its intermediate snail hosts. However, human infection with the fluke is not common. Up to now, 38 hospital patients and six infected individuals from two epidemiological surveys have been reported in the Chinese literature. F. gigantica infection in herbivorous animals is comparatively rare compared to F. hepatica infections, and only one case was reported in man (Wang, 1984). This paper reviews mainly human infections with F. hepatica in the Chinese literature. Animal infections of the parasite are also briefly described.

Liver fluke disease (fascioliasis): epidemiology, economic impact and public health significance.

Liver fluke disease (fascioliasis) is an important parasitic disease found worldwide affecting sheep, goats, cattle and buffalo, as well as other domestic ruminants. The common causative agents are Fasciola hepatica and F. gigantica which require various species of Lymnaea, fresh water snails, as their intermediate hosts. The epidemiology of the disease and its prevalence in Malaysia is mentioned briefly. The disease causes considerable impact on the economy of the livestock industry. The economic losses consist of costs of anthelmintics, drenches, labor, liver condemnation at meat inspection; and losses in production due to mortality, reduction in meat, milk and wool production; and reduction in growth rate, fertility and draught power. The disease also has public health significance, causing human fascioliasis and "halzoun".